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Black Wall Street Massacre – Tulsa, 1921

📍Location: Tulsa, Oklahoma

📅Time: May 31 – June 1, 1921

Background.

In the early 20th century, the Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma, was home to one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States. Known as "Black Wall Street," it featured thriving businesses, including banks, hotels, movie theaters, restaurants, and medical practices — all Black-owned and operated. It was a symbol of Black economic power and self-reliance in an era of deep segregation and racial discrimination.

The Incident

On May 30, 1921, a young Black man named Dick Rowland was accused of assaulting a white female elevator operator, Sarah Page. Though the accusation was likely false and charges were later dropped, the local white population became enraged. A mob gathered outside the courthouse, demanding Rowland be handed over. In response, a group of armed Black residents came to protect him, fearing a lynching.

The Massacre

Violence broke out between the two groups, which escalated into one of the worst incidents of racial violence in American history. Over 18 hours:

White mobs looted and burned more than 35 square blocks of Greenwood.
Over 1,000 Black-owned homes and businesses were destroyed.
As many as 300 Black residents were killed (official numbers are much lower but widely disputed).
Thousands were left homeless.
Some reports say private airplanes were used to drop firebombs on buildings — one of the only known aerial attacks on U.S. soil against American citizens by other citizens.

Erased from History

For decades, the Tulsa Race Massacre was largely omitted from American history books. Survivors were silenced by fear or shame, and the city never compensated victims or acknowledged the scale of the atrocity for many years. It wasn’t until the late 20th and early 21st century that historians and activists began pushing for recognition, reparations, and justice.

Why It Matters

The massacre highlights how economic success by Black communities was met with brutal violence.
It reveals the systemic efforts to erase uncomfortable truths from the national narrative.
Even today, the impact of the massacre lingers in the form of economic inequality and generational trauma in Tulsa’s Black community.

🔎 What Led to the Tulsa Race Massacre?

Racial Tensions in 1920s America

The early 20th century in the U.S. was marked by intense racial segregation and white supremacy. The Ku Klux Klan was rising in influence, particularly in the South and Midwest. Jim Crow laws legally enforced segregation, and lynchings of Black Americans were common and rarely punished.

Despite this hostile environment, Greenwood, the Black district in Tulsa, was thriving economically. That success threatened the white power structure. Many white residents resented the fact that Black Americans could prosper, especially during a period of post-World War I economic instability for whites.

The Spark

On May 30, 1921, Dick Rowland, a 19-year-old Black shoe shiner, entered an elevator operated by Sarah Page, a 17-year-old white girl. What happened next is unclear — some accounts say he tripped and grabbed her arm to steady himself, others suggest nothing happened at all. But Page screamed, and Rowland fled.

The next day, the local newspaper published a front-page story titled “Nab Negro for Attacking Girl in Elevator”, stoking public outrage and encouraging lynch mob sentiment.

💥 How the Violence Unfolded

May 31, 1921: A white mob gathered outside the Tulsa courthouse demanding Rowland be handed over. Black World War I veterans also arrived, determined to defend him. Tensions escalated, shots were fired, and chaos ensued.
That night and into the next day, white rioters — some deputized by the city — stormed into Greenwood. They looted homes and businesses, then set them on fire. Survivors reported that machine guns were used and airplanes dropped incendiary bombs on buildings.
Black residents were shot in the streets, their bodies dumped into mass graves or the Arkansas River. Thousands were rounded up and placed in internment camps at the city fairgrounds and convention center.

📉 The Destruction and Cover-Up

35+ blocks were completely destroyed.
Over 1,000 homes and businesses were burned to the ground.
$1.8 million in claims were filed by Black residents — but none were paid.
No one was ever charged for the violence.
Insurance companies refused to pay out, citing “riot” clauses.
For decades, the massacre was left out of school textbooks and public records.

🧓 Survivors and Oral Histories

Many survivors fled Tulsa and never returned. Those who remained lived in fear. Families who lost everything had to rebuild from scratch. Oral histories — many recorded decades later — speak of trauma, silence, and resilience.

One survivor, Viola Fletcher, was 107 years old when she testified before Congress in 2021. She said:

“I will never forget the violence of the white mob. I still see Black men being shot, Black bodies lying in the street, I still smell smoke and see fire.”

🧾 Modern Recognition and Reparations Efforts

In the 1990s, survivors and historians pushed for a formal investigation. The Oklahoma state government launched a commission that confirmed the massacre and proposed reparations — though little action was taken.
In 2020–2021, amid nationwide racial justice movements, the massacre gained broader attention. The city of Tulsa began to excavate suspected mass grave sites.
In 2021, President Joe Biden became the first sitting U.S. president to visit the massacre site on its 100th anniversary. He acknowledged the federal government’s failure to act and called for deeper historical reckoning.

🧠 Why It’s Still Relevant Today

The Tulsa Race Massacre is not just a story of racial violence, but of systemic erasure and economic injustice.
Greenwood could have become a long-lasting center of Black wealth — but its destruction contributed to the wealth gap between Black and white Americans that persists today.
The fight for reparations and historical recognition continues, led by descendants of survivors and justice activists.

Would you like:

Maps or images of Greenwood before and after the massacre?
Personal stories or quotes from survivors?
A timeline or infographic summary?
Other similar hidden events in U.S. history (e.g., Rosewood Massacre, Japanese internment, Red Summer)?

🕰️ Historical Context: Greenwood's Prosperity and Tensions

In the early 20th century, the Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma, was a thriving Black community often referred to as "Black Wall Street" due to its economic success. The area boasted over 1,000 Black-owned businesses, including banks, hotels, theaters, and schools. This prosperity, however, was met with resentment from some white residents who viewed the success of Black entrepreneurs as a threat to the racial hierarchy.

The immediate catalyst for the massacre was a false accusation against a Black teenager, Dick Rowland, who was alleged to have assaulted a white woman, Sarah Page. Though the charges were never substantiated, the rumor incited a white mob to demand Rowland's lynching, leading to a violent confrontation.

🔥 The Massacre: Destruction and Loss

Between May 31 and June 1, 1921, white mobs descended upon Greenwood, looting and burning homes and businesses. The violence resulted in:

Over 1,000 homes and businesses destroyed
Up to 300 Black residents killed (official records reported 36, but historians believe the actual number was higher)
Thousands left homeless

Eyewitnesses reported that airplanes dropped incendiary devices on the community, and machine guns were used against residents. Despite the scale of the destruction, no one was ever held accountable.

🗣️ Survivor Testimonies and Oral Histories

Viola Fletcher

At 107 years old, Viola Fletcher became one of the most prominent voices in seeking justice for the massacre. In 2021, she testified before Congress, stating:

“I will never forget the violence of the white mob. I still see Black men being shot, Black bodies lying in the street, I still smell smoke and see fire.”

Olivia Hooker

Dr. Olivia Hooker, one of the last survivors, was just six years old during the massacre. She later became the first African American woman to join the U.S. Coast Guard and earned a Ph.D. in psychology. She dedicated much of her life to educating others about the events of 1921.

Wess and Cathryn Young

Wess Young, a survivor, and his wife, Cathryn, have been active in preserving the history of the massacre. Their efforts include participating in oral history projects that document the experiences of survivors and their descendants.

🏛️ Modern-Day Recognition and Efforts for Justice

Government Acknowledgment

In 2021, on the 100th anniversary of the massacre, President Joe Biden issued a proclamation acknowledging the federal government's failure to act and committing to advance racial justice. He stated:

“With this proclamation, I commit to the survivors of the Tulsa Race Massacre... that we will never forget.”

Reparations Lawsuit

A lawsuit was filed by civil rights attorney Damario Solomon-Simmons, seeking reparations for the survivors and their descendants. The case aims to address the economic and psychological impacts of the massacre that have persisted for generations.

Public Art and Education

To commemorate the centennial, several initiatives were launched:

Greenwood Art Project: A series of public art installations around Tulsa aimed at educating the public about the massacre and honoring the resilience of the Greenwood community.
Tulsa Library Exhibits: The Tulsa City-County Library curated exhibits to promote education, empathy, and healing, featuring panels on Black Wall Street, the massacre, and its aftermath.

🧠 Legacy and Ongoing Impact

The Tulsa Race Massacre left an indelible mark on the Black community in Tulsa. The destruction of Greenwood not only resulted in immediate loss but also had long-term effects:

Economic Displacement: Many Black families lost their homes and businesses, leading to generational poverty.
Psychological Trauma: The violence and subsequent lack of justice have contributed to ongoing psychological and emotional scars within the community.
Cultural Erasure: For decades, the massacre was omitted from history books and public discourse, leading to a loss of cultural memory.

Efforts continue to address these injustices through education, legal action, and community engagement.

If you're interested in exploring more about the Tulsa Race Massacre, here are some resources:

Voices of Oklahoma: A collection of oral histories from survivors and descendants. Voices of Oklahoma
Greenwood Rising History Center: A museum dedicated to the history of the Greenwood District and the events of 1921.
Fire in Little Africa: A musical project commemorating the centennial, featuring artists from Tulsa's Black community